Data protection in online banking

Data protection in online banking Introduction Online banking is the practice of performing bank transactions over the internet. Due to the advanced nature of technology, most people use the internet to fulfil most of their personal needs, for instance; e-mails, internet calls, and video conferencing. Information technology is now being used to develop more supple and easy to use banking services (Nadim and Noorjahan, 2007). Online banking which can also be called internet banking is now being used and adopted by most people. Online banking can be useful in so many ways to both the customer and the banking institution, although the degree of its usefulness varies depending on whose point of view you look at it from. Online banking activities involves not only banks and customers but includes third parties too (Guptar, 2006). This essay would be looking at the privacy issues relating to the use of customers data and transactions in online banking. This essay would also be looking at the privacy concerns about how the customers per sonal data is used by the bank and what amount of control a customer has over the use of his/her data, how the bank shares customers personal data with third party or affiliated businesses and the rights and control customers have over the distribution of their data. And also what rights the government have over the monitoring of customers bank details and information, the ethical, social, professional and legal issues related to online banking services and the application of ethical/professional principles in the use of online banking services. Privacy issues in Online Banking Internationally, customers of several organisations can now pay their bills, transfer money to multiple accounts, make deposits, withdrawals or payments with online checks, view transactions on their account, trade bonds and securities, and all this can be done conveniently with just the click of the mouse and in the comfort of the customers home. The physical presence of customers are no longer needed for most transactions in the bank, as long queues witnessed in crowded banking halls can now be avoided which saves the bank the overhead cost of managing a crowded bank hall. But still, so many customers are concerned about the security of their personal information while operating the online banking service. According to Duquenoy et al (2005, p. 1), privacy is one of the main concerns associated with the use of online banking. I believe privacy is the most fundamental and relevant issue in online banking. Although there is not a specific privacy law in respect to online banking, ther e is an abundance of privacy laws that exist and this essay would be looking at a few of them as they are too many to write on all of them here. As noted by a few authors, Nadim and Noorjahan (2007) believed that privacy is one of the key factors amongst other issues which have an effect on a customers adoption of online banking technology. Most customers are concerned about how their personal data would be used when registering for an online banking account. What happens to their data after giving out their personal information? They are not sure and convinced about how secure and safe their data would be and how the data would be stored, manipulated, retrieved and updated. Mason (1986) stated that privacy concerns in online banking where raised by a few questions like; what information do customers require to reveal about themselves?; on what conditions?; what information can the customer can keep to themselves? According to Earp and Payton (2006) some major privacy concerns about the use of online banking technology are collection (enormous amount of personal information data collected and stored in databases), unauthorize d secondary use of data (personal data used for purposes other than they were primarily collected for), improper access (personal information viewed by unauthorized personnel), errors (unintended or intentional), and what level of protection could be put in place against them in personal information data. For example, there was a breach of information in which there was an identity theft of 3.3 million people with student loans in the weekend of March 20 21, 2010. Information such as name, addresses and social security numbers were stolen from a portable media device from the headquarters of Educational Credit Management Corporation, although the company claims it was a simple old-fashioned theft and not a hacker incident (WSJ, 2010). Howcroft et al (2003) noted that customers have confidence in their banks but their trust in the technology infrastructure of online banking was frail. Therefore privacy issues have proved to be an obstacle to the adoption of online banking technology (Nadim and Noorjahan, 2007). Most customers are worried about their personal data and financial information being revealed online. According to a study by Paul (2005), 94% of the banks customers express their concern about their personal information being exposed online. Privacy in online banking can be said to be the protection of the customers personal and financial information. It is the duty of IT professionals to secure and protect all customers personal information, they should conform to privacy legislation, professional codes of conduct and ethical principles to gain customers confidence in the technology and guard their reputation. Although Dewan and Seidmann (2001) argue that the success of online banking is expected to come w ith a growing price to personal privacy. They also stated that All online interactions leave detailed audit trails that continually depict a larger portion of our lives. Furthermore, privacy standards associated with the use of online banking technology in the banking industry (industry principles) currently exist. For example the American Bankers Association, Bankers Roundtable, Consumers Bank Association to name a few, have all approved equally to a set of privacy principles to portray a wide and united industry. They all have obligations to the similar set of guiding principles like; recognizing an individuals expectation of privacy; using, collecting and retaining personal information only if it produces the greatest benefit to such person; maintaining an up-to-date and accurate information; making individuals aware of the privacy policies; confine exposure of customers personal information; established security measures to protect information and maintaining an individuals privacy in business relationships with third parties (Earp and Payton, 2006). How can personal data be protected? Technological solutions that can give customers direct control over their personal information on their computer like cookie manager, encryption software, ad blocker to mention a few, give customers an amount of control over intrusions by hackers, spam and cookies. Also customer activism creating a policy taking direct action in online or offline environments to achieve desired enhancements in privacy policy, for example the American civil liberties Unions Take Back Your Data Campaign (Ashworth Free, 2006). Also privacy codes of practice like the BCS and ACM guide professionals on how to create and implement systems that protects the privacy of third parties. Privacy laws have been mostly controversial when viewing the laws relating to how much control customers have in the sharing of their personal information with third party organisations or affiliated business. Personal information in the control of banks about their customers data and transactions passes through different hands numerous times (Gupta, 2006).It is almost not possible for banks to retain customer data within their computer network let alone their jurisdiction. The risks of tampering of information, blockage and leakage are high and therefore needs an adequate legal and technical protection (Gupta, 2006). Most banks tend to use the personal data of their customers while advertising some of their other products and services. Third parties could use this data for marketing purposes, advertisements and customers usually view this as spam or unwanted information or some could also use it for illegitimate reasons like identity theft. The sale and distribution of customer pers onal data to third parties is a very lucrative business and generates a lot of revenue for companies. Duquenoy (2005) found out that the industry was valued at two billion pounds as at 2003. But how ethical is the sale or distribution of customer data to third parties? How does the third party make use of this information? These are some of the questions most banks have failed to look into in the use of personal data to make other products in online banking. Most customers find it a bit complicated controlling their personal information given out and collected by the bank, and its other businesses or government agencies that they could be shared with or sold to. It is required by the law that customers have to be given an option in order to decide what personal data can be collected and given out to third party or affiliated businesses, such options include the opt-in and opt-out methods. The UK follows the opt-in scheme under the provisions of the privacy and Electronics Communications Regulations 2003. The provision of an opt-out method gives the customer the choice of preventing personal information being disclosed to affiliated or non-affiliated businesses and third parties, while providing an opt-in option is the reverse which allows for the sharing of information for purposes specified by the bank (Giglio, 2005). Further, research discovered that customers must clearly inform companies of their wishes to opt-in or opt-out when registering or filling out online forms for the use of online banking or other internet services provided by the bank. In that case customers are to be told what, which and how their data can or may be used, they should also be given an explanation or description about what circumstances or situations by which personal information may be disclosed to third parties. The principles of rights based ethics (contractrianism) states that the cus tomer also has the right to know, the right to privacy and the right to property. Although, some customers might not mind having their personal data being shared, others might mind and tend to mind a lot. A major challenge being faced in the IT industry today is ensuring that sharing of data is secure and safe guarded (Raab, 2008). An IT professional should ensure that customer personal data is protected and is only shared with trustworthy third parties. And it is also the responsibility of the IT professional to ensure that personal data is used only for its primary or intended purpose or that which has been specified by the customer. One of the ethical principles in the BCS (British Computer Society) code of conduct states that You shall have regard to the legitimate right of third parties Third parties being referred to here could be viewed as the customer, and it is expected of an IT professional to know, understand and abide by the law and are also expected to regard and respect the rights of individuals, third parties and the society at large (Duquenoy et al 2005, p. 2). There have been a lot of cases whereby personal data is used for purposes other than which they have been collected for and this is ethically wrong. It is also called the secondary use of personal information which is the use of such information other than the purpose it was supplied for (Duquenoy et al 2005, p. 5). According to a research conducted through the distribution of questioners to a few people who make the use of online banking services with their banks in the UAE, 75% of customers get unsolicited mails about the banks new products and offers which they never requested for or signed up for, 8% view this as an intrusion of their privacy and specify not to be mailed about such future produ cts. The remaining 17% seem not to have been educated and informed properly about how to opt-out from the use of their personal data for distribution and marketing purposes or opt-in if they require being aware of promotions and offers the bank makes. It is essential for the bank to foster trust between itself and the customer as this is good for business and it is a known fact that it is harder to regain trust than initially gaining it. This is why it is essential that much more effort be put in place to secure customer data sharing (Raab, 2008). While conducting an interview with Suhail bin Taraff, an IT staff of Emirates NBD which is the largest bank in the UAE, it was noted that the customers that make use of the internet banking services of the bank would require to opt-in by ticking a check box in their personal online banking account if they require to be notified of products the bank offers and if they would also require their personal data passed on to third parties and affiliates of the bank producing similar or specific products or services.Online banking has two types of risk: maintaining integrity of customer information and preventing unauthorised use of such data (Gupta, 2006). The indiscriminate use of personal data is viewed as a violation of an individuals privacy right and in the UK the right to privacy is covered by the Data Protection Act. The second principle of the Data Protection Act 1998 states that the customer has the right of information about the processing of their personal data, including the rig ht to be informed either at the time the data is first processed or when that data is first disclosed to a third party, and also the right of access to their personal data (Duquenoy et al 2005, p. 20). Although the law cannot keep pace with technology, under the Data Protection Act a person has to demonstrate if they have been subjected to unwarranted distress/damages through their datas exposure in order to claim any sort of compensation (Raab, 2008). Does the government have the right to monitor online banking transactions? Businesses view the use of information as a means to making more money while the government tend to view information as a means to protect security. However, in both cases individuals or groups have limited control on how their personal data is used. It is found to be known that knowledge is power and the more information the government gathers about customers bank transactions the more power they have over them and the less power the customers have. And there could be abuse of such power by the government or whoever is in charge to use such power, for selfish means or politically motivated aims. The government claims that they use the capabilities offered by IT to get the intelligence that enables them to meet their responsibilities to protect citizens. But most individuals have little confidence in the governments handling of their data and fear that there could be a misuse or misinterpretation which could lead to persecution and prosecution of innocent people in the application of law and order and also while protecting national security. There is also found to be a lack of confidence in the governments ability to protect personal data and keep it secure, most online banking customers fear that this could give the government too much power and control over them. Most customers tend to mind if the government or law enforcement agencies read their communications or view their bank transactions, even if they have not done anything wrong or have nothing to hide. Part two of article eight of the Human Rights Act, 1998 states thus: There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interest of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedom of others (Duquenoy et al 2005, pg. 11). In the United States of America, the government created a secret programme to monitor bank transactions of suspected terrorists or people having ties with them that routes through the Belgian based financial company SWIFT (Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication), since the terrorist attack that occurred on the 11th of September 2001. The proprietary electronic network, SWIFT, then gives the US government access to financial data from institutions worldwide (Jacobs, 2007). Banks tend to view privacy matters almost completely in conditions of regulatory conformity. But the same government that claims to protect the rights and freedom of individuals seem to invade it also. The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 and the USA Patriot Act 2001 are legislations that tend to serve the interest of the state related to issues of counter terrorism and crime detection and support the monitoring and surveillance of individuals. Professor Charles Raab (2008) said that there is a need to question the sharing of personal data to cater the needs of society other than the protection of privacy. Some may argue that the monitoring of an individuals bank account transactions without their consent violates the rights of confidentiality and anonymity of such customer. Any country that signs up to the UN Declaration of Human Rights must make sure they take steps to protect privacy. In Europe the EU includes privacy in its convention on Human Rights while the UK includes it in the Data Protection Act. In the UK the monitoring of a customers bank transactions and data can be viewed as an invasion of the customers privacy by the government and violates the privacy rights of the customer and goes against the data protection act which states that personal data can only be processed when consent has been given or necessary to contract and must be only for specified purposes, adequate, relevant and not excessive, not kept longer than necessary and processed in ac cordance with rights of data subject (ICO, 2010). According to a research conducted by the BCS, 61% of members believe that there is an inequality between the data rights of the individual and the state while only 17% believe that the present legal regulations on data are sufficient (BCS, 2010). The secure handling of a customers personal information is a legal, ethical and social requirement in online banking (Duquenoy et al, 2005). The potential for abuse is great in online banking therefore ethics plays a vital role. Ethical issues that arise in online banking gives a cause for concern, for example more than 24,000 HSBC customers were affected by a breach in the storage of their personal information in the banks data centre on the 15th of March 2010, this was as a result of data theft by one of the IT employee (BCS, 2010). This shows a disregard of the ethical principle which implies respect for other people. Unauthorised use of an individuals personal computer without their permission or knowledge could be termed as an invasion of that individuals privacy. Unauthorised access of personal information or poor security measures in Information Systems put customers (society) at risk and this could result in a loss of confidence by the general public and could have a negative effect on the use of online banking services. It is also viewed as a social issue due to the effect it has on the general public and prospective customers. This could lead to hacking or installation of spyware in the individuals computer and puts the owners personal data at risk. There are many legal issues that affect online banking like identity theft, protecting privacy, online crime and misuse of data. Using the internet has its own risk and most customers expect laws to be in place that will protect them while banking online. In the banking industry, the Gramm-Leach-Biley Act of 1999 (GLBA) was passed to augment the protection of privacy while the Data Protection Act (1998) covers the right to privacy in the UK. The law is in place to protect digitally stored personal information from being widely distributed and mismanaged. Organisations are required by the act to make sure that personal information is kept secure. Professional issues could imply how a professional should act and also their role in the design, implementation of data systems and in the manipulation, modification of data and the important role they play. The BCS is the professional body for those employed in the IT industry in the UK. One of the aims of the BCS is to maintain standards in the industry and in most cases these are translated into principles set out in a code of conduct (Duquenoy et al 2005, p. 5). IT professionals are expected to know the law and abide by it. They are also expected to ensure public safety and respect the rights of third parties like the general public. Conclusion Online banking technology seems to be slowly adopted by majority of prospective customers despite being aware about the usefulness of this technology and this is due to the fact that customers are seriously concerned about the privacy of their data and do not really feel secure giving out their personal data digitally. A number of privacy issues have been analysed and discussed in this essay and the rights and control customers have of the use of their personal data, the measures and steps they can use to protect their personal information and the degree to which government agencies have access to the customers bank transactions and personal data. The professional, legal, ethical and social requirement in online banking technology and how an IT professional should apply ethical principles in the use and handling of a customers personal data. Reference List Ashworth, L. Free, C. (2006), Marketing Dataveillance and Digital Privacy: Using Theories of Justice to Understand Consumers Online Privacy Concerns, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 67, pp. 107-123. Duquenoy, P, Jones, S, Rahanu, H, Diaper, D, (2005) Social, Legal and Professional Issues of Computing. Middlesex University Press 2005 Stamatellos, G. (2007), Computer Ethics: A Global Perspective, Jones and Bartlett Publishers Mason, R, 0, (1986) Four Ethical Issues of the Information Age, Issues and opinions, MIS quarterly Earp, J. B. Payton, F. C. (2006), Information Privacy in the Service Sector: An Exploratory Study of Health Care and Banking Professionals, Journal of organizational computing and electronic commerce, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 105 122. Giglio, V. (2005), Privacy in the world of cyberbanking: Emerging legal issues and How You Are Protected. Ng, P. (2010), What is online banking? viewed 20 February 2010, http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-online-banking.htm Roundtree, D. (2001), Taking Care of Customer Privacy, Bank Technology News, Vol.14 Issue 11, p.20. European Parliament Blocks US powers to monitor EU bank transactions, viewed 21 February 2010, http://www.out-law.com/page-10748 Nadim, J and Noorjahan, B. (2007), Effect of Perceived Usefulness, Ease of Use, Security and Privacy on Customer Attitude and Adaptation in the Context of E-Banking, Journal of Management Research, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 147 157 Howcroft, B, Hamilton, R. and Hewer, P. (2002), Consumer Attitude and the Usage and Adoption of Home-based Banking in the United Kingdom, The International Journal of Bank Marketing, 20(3): 111-121. Jamieson, P (2005), Consumers and Online Banking, Point for Credit Union Research Advice Dewan, R and Seidmann, A. (2001), Current Issues in E-BANKING, Communications of the ACM; Vol.44 Issue 6, p. 31-32 Raab, C. (2008), The privacy conundrum, viewed 13 March 2010, http://www.bcs.org/server.php?show=conWebDoc.17577 The office of the Information Commisioner, viewed 13 March 2010, http://www.ico.gov.uk British Computer Society (2010). Code of Conduct, viewed 10 March 2010, http://www.bcs.org/server.php?show=nav.6030 Gupta, A, (2006), Data Protection in Consumer E-banking, Journal of Internet Banking and Commerce, vol. 11, no. 1 State has more data on citizens than necessary, say BCS members, viewed 26th March 2010, http://www.bcs.org/server.php?show=conWebDoc.34817 Jacobs, E, (2007), SWIFT Privacy: Data Processor Becomes Data Controller, Journal of Internet Banking and Commerce, vol. 12, no. 1 The basics, in Information Commisioners office, viewed 9th March 2010, http://www.ico.gov.uk/what we cover/freedom of information/the basics.aspx Freedom of Information Act (2000), viewed 15th March 2010, http://www.opsi.gov.uk/Acts/acts2000/ukpga 20000036 en 1 Pilon, M, (2010), Data Theft Hits 3.3 Million Borrowers, The Wall Street Journal, viewed 29th March 2010, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304434404575150024174102954.html?KEYWORDS=data+theft+hits+33+million+borrowers

Extraterrestrial Visitation - The Truth is Out There :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Extraterrestrial Visitation - The Truth is Out There Look up in the sky! It's a bird! It's a plane! No, it's...a UFO?! For many years, the question of extraterrestrial visitation is one that has puzzled everyone from the media crazed public to the most ingenious scientists. An excerpt from the 1996 summer's sci-fi thriller, Independence Day , reflects how some of the public feel about the validity behind extraterrestrial visitation: PRESIDENT. Sir, regardless of what you might have read in the tabloids there have never been any spacecrafts recovered by your government. Take my word for it. There is no Area 51. There is no recovered spaceship. AIDE. Uhh... Mr. President... That's not entirely correct... Maybe aliens have visited us in the past. But if so, it has only been on the big screen. Though many avow that they have come in contact with alien visitors, these sightings have been like a cocktail; a mixture of hoaxes, hallucinations, misinterpretations of natural phenomenon, and paranoid imagination. In fact, the probability of intelligent life outside of our planet is almost nil. Reports of extraterrestrial visitation have never been scientifically confirmed. Because the alien topic has been exploited for all it's worth by the market, the argument for the existence of extraterrestrial visitation seems watered down. But still, many people have seriously defended the existence of UFOs through the decades. Some claim they have caught a glimpse of them. Others say the government is covering up information about aliens they have discovered. Still others go as far as to say they were abducted. However, one thing is a non-variable: the firmness of their belief. Many are enthusiastic, almost obsessed, about their interest. Some wander about in search of UFOs, while others lead normal lives. They say that they know what they saw. The pro-UFO argument has always been one that was suspicious and inconsistent. In spite of this disorganization, the theory, like even the most separated arguments, has common threads that links everything together. The first thread is that, intelligent extraterrestrial life exists and their technology is far more advanced than our own. The second thread is that the government has supposedly found alien spacecrafts and alien bodies, and they are covering up the story by keeping critical information from us. Believers seem to think the rest of the world is hostile to this idea because others are not open-minded enough to see the truth.

All The s Men: Theme

The nature of Jack Burden`s journey from the `arid land of facts` to the `dream sea of ideas` is what the story is all about. It goes on to spell whether the journey undertaken by the hero is indeed a spiritual one or an attempt at self-discovery. An attempt has been made to explore the roots of this journey through Modernism (the breakdown of philosophical/moral consensus about the nature of things, the turn toward myth) and Neo-Romanticism (the search for a new unifying principle amid the fragmentations of Modernity/Scientific Materialism), the role of Willie Stark, Ellis Burden, Judge Irwin, and the hero’s journey through the turmoil and pleasures of life. The story revolves around the relationship between the themes of Death and Rebirth which occur in Jack’s journey through incidences of tragedy and beyond. It ends on a note of positivism, when the hero, Jack Burden, transforms himself from being a pawn to his roots in ancestral lineage. Literature Review ‘All the King's Men’, is the story of the rise and fall of Willie Stark, a political titan in the Deep South, who during the 1930s rose from hardscrabble poverty to become the governor of his state, and ultimately it’s most powerful political figure. The story goes on to say how Willie, the anti-hero blackmails and bullies his enemies into submission, and using his good office institutes a radical series of liberal reforms which are designed to tax the rich and ease the burden of the state's poor farmers. This leads to a conflict of personalities which includes the notable former governor, Sam MacMurfee, and other power mongers. Jack Burden, the scion of one of the state's aristocratic dynasties, turns his back on his genteel upbringing, against the wishes of his well-wishers, which includes the influential Judge Irwin. Throwing caution to wind, Jack joins Willie on his journey to stardom, earning him the name as, Willie’s right hand. Willie takes advantage of Jack’s talent as a historical researcher to dig up the unpleasant secrets of his enemies, using this to blackmail and provocation. Cynical and lacking in ambition as he is, Jack walks away from many of his past interests; the dissertation of American History, and marriage to Anne Stanton, the daughter of a former governor of the state. The scene when Willie asks Jack to look for skeletons in the closet of Judge Irwin, Jack is forced to confront his ideas concerning consequence, responsibility, and motivation. He discovers that Judge Irwin had accepted a bribe, and that Governor Stanton, his would-be father-in-law, had covered it up, resulting in Judge Irwin's suicide. The story then turns to another interesting episode of Adam Stanton, Anne’s brother, taking up the directorship of a new hospital being built by Willie. The vicious turn of events leads Willie to Anne, who unsuspectingly has an affair leading to his ultimate murder. Jack, with nothing to gain returns, an empty man. In this we see, the death and rebirth of Jack through his tryst with destiny and forlorn countenance of Anne transform to one of exuberance. Willie's death at the hands of Adam, his loyal employee, jolts Jack to such an extent that he is left dumbfounded and brooding of the consequence of his future and a rethink of his belief. Jack returns to his senses and takes a major plunge towards society by accepting his long lost love, Anne Stanton, and pursues his passion of research . 3. 0 Analysis Jack’s journey from the ‘arid land of facts’ to the ‘dream sea of ideas’ can be best described as a journey towards truth which is emphasized when he says, ‘And all times are one time, and all those dead in the past never lived before our definition gives them life, and out of the shadow their eyes implore us. That is what all of us historical researchers believe. And we love truth. ’ It may be seen that the principal characters in the novel Willie Stark, Judge Irwin, Anne Stanton though their personal lives have not been free from blemishes, they were in more than a way, corrupt. Starting with his association with Willie to the displeasure of his near and dear, the moment he learns of the affair of his first love Anne Stanton with Willie, and to the moment he learns of Judge Irwin’s suicide, Jack had never endured a sign of negativism in Willie’s actions. It is only when Jack’s mother reveals the true identity of his father, does Jack admonishes Willie for his deliberations, although not in public. This incident leads Jack through many a twist and turn in his endeavor to get to the bottom of Willie’s motives. The sequence of events that followed, leading to the untimely murder of Willie, inculcated a sense of disbelief, and revulsion in him. The trudge back to his roots exemplifies the struggle and worship of humanity in all its glory. Jack for all his wiles, was an ardent follower of his master. Willie Stark, ‘the Boss’ gave the impression of a man on the move. Never, did he pause to gauge the consequences of his actions. This ultimately led to his doom. Willie Stark, though he had a humble beginning, rose to a position of wielding unbridled power in the process subjugating his opponents by brute force and of course putting to use the investigative skills of Jack. Judge Irwin, revered as a father figure by Jack, has not been in the good books of Willie, who instigates Jack to dig into the past activities of Irwin, protested vehemently by him. However, when the facts were unearthed, a shocked Jack and a bemused Willie confronted Judge Irwin. Judge Irwin was a man of honor. He was known to be a very straight man and never took the law into his hands. This revelation was too much for him to digest, and equally embarrassing, that he did what a man of his stature would have done, commit suicide. Strangely, for most part of the story, Jack believes that Ellis Burden, whom he refers to as his Scholarly attorney, to be his father, where in fact, it is Judge Irwin who is the real biological father. Ironically, Jack gets to know this only after the suicide of Irwin, which Jack believes was because of his action. Jack’s aristocratic moorings unfortunately does not refrain him from joining hands with the immoral Willie Stark as we see in the story. Though Willie uses Jack as a formidable tool in his ascent to power, using Jack’s research skills to his greatest advantage of subjugating his opponents, was a crime most unsuspecting of such a character. Jack becomes a witness to Willie’s Machiavellian manipulations and misdeeds, albeit, unwittingly. However Jack’s shunning politics at the end of the story and his return to his earlier passion is a metaphor for Jack’s return to his roots, his history, and his American past. In fact, Jack’s research revolves around his study of the life of Cass Mastern, a man of high moral standards and a student at Transylvania College in Kentucky. Even the subject Jack takes up for his dissertation is a reminder to the readers of Jack’s search for the truth. ‘Is death the last sleep? No, it is the last and final awakening,’ said W. Scott, a stark reminder synonymous of the characters in this book; Judge Irwin’s suicide when he is confronted by Jack with facts about his acceptance of a bribe, and the killing of Willie Stark by Adam Stanton. While for the major part of the story Jack believed that the ‘Great Twitch’ denoted actions in life and not words or deeds. The awakening on that morning at home, brought Jack to retract his thoughts on life, and once again believed that men were responsible for their actions and deeds. This rethinking in a sense is responsible for Jack’s decision to marry Anne Stanton (a metaphor for rebirth) despite his knowledge of the fact that he she had an affair with Willie Stark. Reflecting philosophically he says, ‘all the words we speak meant nothing and there was only the pulse in the blood and the twitch of the nerve, like a dead frog's leg in the experiment when the electric current goes through, a true reflection of Modernism. This can be, in a philosophical sense be equated to the death of Jack figuratively, since Anne was Jack’s first love, whom he loved more than anything else in the world. 4. 0 Conclusion In the ultimate analysis it may be inferred that Jack’s life has been a life of journey towards the truth, towards his roots and eventually his self-discovery. The main characters in the story play an important role in molding Jack’s character, the incidents in the lives of those characters enlightening the path Jack has taken to achieve his goal. 5. 0 Bibliography 1. 0 www. sparknotes. com/lit/kingsmen/summary. html

The Colossal Heads of the Olmec

The Olmec civilization, which thrived along Mexicos Gulf Coast from about 1200 to 400 B.C., was the first major Mesoamerican culture. The Olmec were extremely talented artists, and their most lasting artistic contribution is without a doubt the enormous sculpted heads they created. These sculptures have been found at a handful of archaeological sites, including La Venta and San Lorenzo. Originally thought to depict gods or ballplayers, most archaeologists now say they believe they are likenesses of long-dead Olmec rulers. The Olmec Civilization The Olmec culture developed cities -- defined as population centers with political and cultural significance and influence -- as early as 1200 B.C. They were talented traders and artists, and their influence is quite clearly seen in later cultures like the Aztec and the Maya. Their sphere of influence was along Mexicos Gulf Coast -- particularly in the present-day states of Veracruz and Tabasco -- and major Olmec cities included San Lorenzo, La Venta, and Tres Zapotes. By 400 B.C. or so their civilization had gone into steep decline and had all but disappeared. The Olmec Colossal Heads The Olmecs colossal sculpted heads show the head and face of a helmeted man with distinctly indigenous features. Several of the heads are taller than an average adult human male. The largest colossal head was discovered at La Cobata. It stands about 10 feet tall and weighs an estimated 40 tons. The heads are generally flattened at the back and not carved all the way around -- they are meant to be viewed from the front and sides. Some traces of plaster and pigments on one of the San Lorenzo heads indicate that they may have once been painted. Seventeen Olmec colossal heads have been found: 10 at San Lorenzo, four at La Venta, two at Tres Zapotes and one at La Cobata. Creating the Colossal Heads The creation of these heads was a significant undertaking. The basalt boulders and blocks used to carve the heads were located as much as 50 miles away. Archaeologists suggest a laborious process of slowly moving the stones, using a   combination of raw manpower, sledges and, when possible, rafts on rivers. This process was so difficult that there are several examples of pieces being carved from earlier works; two of the San Lorenzo heads were carved out of an earlier throne. Once the stones reached a workshop, they were carved using only crude tools such as stone hammers. The Olmec did not have metal tools, which makes the sculptures all the more remarkable. Once the heads were ready, they were moved into position, although it is possible that they were occasionally moved around to create scenes along with other Olmec sculptures. Meaning The exact meaning of the colossal heads has been lost to time, but over the years there have been several theories. Their sheer size and majesty immediately suggest that they represent gods, but this theory has been discounted because in general, Mesoamerican gods are depicted as more gruesome than humans, and the faces are obviously human. The helmet/headdress worn by each of the heads suggests ballplayers, but most archaeologists today say they think they represented rulers. Part of the evidence for this is the fact that each of the faces has a distinct look and personality, suggesting individuals of great power and importance. If the heads had any religious significance to the Olmec, it has been lost to time, although many modern researchers say they think that the ruling class might have claimed a link to their gods. Dating It is almost impossible to pinpoint the exact dates when the colossal heads were made. The San Lorenzo heads were almost certainly all completed before 900 B.C. because the city went into steep decline at that time. Others are even more difficult to date; the one at La Cobata might be unfinished, and the ones at Tres Zapotes were removed from their original locations before their historical context could be documented. Importance The Olmec left behind many stone carvings that include reliefs, thrones, and statues. There is also a handful of surviving wooden busts and some cave paintings in nearby mountains. Nevertheless, the most striking examples of Olmec art are the colossal heads. The Olmec colossal heads are important historically and culturally to modern Mexicans. The heads have taught researchers much about the culture of the ancient Olmec. Their greatest value today, however, is probably artistic. The sculptures are truly amazing and inspirational and a popular attraction at the museums where they are housed. Most of them are in regional museums close to where they were found, while two are in Mexico City. Their beauty is such that several replicas have been made and can be seen around the world.