Adam Smith’s Division of Labor Essay Example

Adam Smith’s Division of Labor Essay Smith was not the first to advance the theory that all wealth is derived from labor. A medieval church-man and a seventeenth-century philosopher had developed a labor theory of value. Smith, however, broke new ground in building a complete system of economic thought around the concept of productive labor. The opening lines of the Wealth of Nations illustrate the importance of his approach. He believes that the annual labor of every nation originally supplies it with all the necessaries and conveniences of life. 2 The earlier writers in analyzing the economic order had woefully underestimated the significance of the laboring man. They were too concerned with the activities of the manufacturer, the merchant, and the farmer to pay much attention to the simple artisan. In Smiths treatise the laboring poor occupy a position of primary importance.The labor expended upon the manufacture of a commodity establishes its value. The quantity and quality of the countrys total production is in lar ge measure determined by the ability and dexterity of the working population. All techniques and institutions which affect the skill of the laboring groups are therefore most important because they directly influence the wealth of a nation. (Fay, pp 75-81)Smiths emphasis upon the hitherto most neglected stratum of society was most radical, and it is not surprising that he ran into difficulties in developing his thesis. In the past, land had always been viewed as a productive force in the national economy; capital had likewise not been considered sterile. Smiths presentation of labors claim conflicted with the vested rights of land and capital. It soon became clear that some compromise would have to be established, because the intrenched position of the older claimants was very strong. Even as attorney for the plaintiff, Smith had great respect for the defendants. Their prestige rather overawed him. Although he at first contended that labor was the sole determinant of value, it was n ot long before he admitted that rent and profits might also influence value. This compromise contained many implicit contradictions, which Karl Marx almost a century later devoted some time to eradicate. He succeeded, but only to a limited extent, for though he strengthened the weak links in Smiths chain of reasoning, he added new ones which proved none too strong. (Brown, pp 123-131).Adam Smith, however, wrote a very interesting brief, despite its deficiencies in logic. The history of the world was in his opinion the history of the increasing efficiency of labor. The absence of specialization in antiquity accounts for the poverty of that period. The agriculturist could improve the yield of his crops only if he were able to make an intensive study of the land. He was, however, forced to spend a considerable part of his time in securing food, shelter, and clothing for himself and his family, and was therefore unable to devote his entire energies to the care of his plants. Some member s of the community showed great talents in the chase, while others proved to be expert house builders. After many centuries of development it became clear that the entire group would benefit if each member engaged in that activity for which he was best fitted. A hunter could kill within a very short time more deer than he could possibly use for his personal needs. A thatcher was able to put his own dwelling into condition by two weeks concentrated effort. A farmer, working on fertile land, could raise more than he could consume. The several specialists commenced to exchange their surplus commodities and labor power, and very soon the wealth of the community increased. An economic society could be most efficiently organized upon the basis of specialization and exchange.The first book of the Wealth of Nations is devoted almost entirely to an analysis of those forces which facilitated the division of labor among men. The treatment afforded the working population becomes highly signific ant in an approach which considers national progress to be largely determined by improvements in the specialization of labor. Merchants had maintained that English prosperity was due to their trading activities. The farming population had contended, although less frequently, that they formed the backbone of the national economy. Adam Smith, however, asserted that the welfare of all countries, at all periods in the worlds history, depended upon the status of labor and the development of the industrial arts. (Lloyd, pp 45-49)Adam Smith had not the least sympathy with the philosophers of this school. He deprecated the heavy taxation of necessities; future generations would suffer if the poor were unable to give their children a proper upbringing. If the laborers wages were lowered their offspring would probably suffer from malnutrition and exposure. Taxes which fall on a necessitous person are always cruel and oppressive; the worst taxes are those which bear more heavily on the poor th an on the rich. For instance the window levy was most unjust, for the poor could no longer afford to have either light or ventilation in their homes.The taxation of the poor cannot be supported even by mercantilistic arguments. A careful analysis proves that taxes upon labor or upon commodities used by labor are certain to be paid by their superiors. If the subsistence of wage earners were reduced their efficiency would be impaired and manufacturers would suffer. The latter, in order to protect themselves, would probably raise wages. In either case the middle and upper classes would be forced to bear the burden.The policy of England was to keep the laboring population servile and industrious. Merchants and manufacturers, fearful that they would have to foot the bill if the laborers improved their condition, attempted to stifle all social reform. No respectable member of English society would have advocated raising the standards of living of the laboring poor. Adam Smith, however, wa s Scottish and was therefore not oppressed by the taboos which prevailed south of the Midlands. He did not hesitate to emphasize the facts that rent and profits eat up wages, and that the two superior orders of people usually oppress the inferior one. Furthermore, he pointed out that unless circumstances force them, the wealthier classes never act generously or humanely in their dealings with their less fortunate brethren. Manufacturers loudly bemoan the high wages which they pay their workmen, but remain silent when profits are discussed. If the public complains about the dearness of commodities, the shrewd business men lose no time in placing the blame upon the high rewards of labor, forgetting to mention that their own rate of return might possibly influence prices. (Ross, pp 108-111).It was fantastic to fear high wages, for whatever improves the general welfare of the greater part of the community can never be considered an inconvenience to the whole. Poverty is a great social l iability. An able laboring population is possible only if workers receive ample remuneration for their efforts; hence to complain of the liberal rewards to labor is to lament the effect and the cause of the greatest public prosperity. As wealth increases, wages increase, and therefore population increases, all of which is for the good of the commonwealth.Thus to understand how the division of labor symbolizes a multiplication of the knowledge used in production, it is merely necessary to recognize that in a division-of-labor society, such as our own, there are as several distinct bodies of knowledge used in production as there are different specializations and subspecializations of employment. Steel producers, for instance, have a different body of knowledge from that of auto producers. Wheat farmers have a different body of knowledge from both of these and even from that of other farmers, for example vegetable growers or dairy farmers. The bodies of knowledge of all such specializa tions enter into the process of production in a division-of-labor society, and every individual is enabled to get products reflecting the total of such knowledge. Consequently, steel producers give the benefit of their knowledge to the whole rest of society; in return, they are capable to receive from the rest of society the benefit of the specialized knowledge held by all further categories of producers. Therefore it is with the members of every specialization. Â  (The Washington Times, pp 14-17)This is an outcome of huge importance, and its implication needs to be carefully measured. What a division-of-labor society symbolizes is the organization of thesame total sum of human brain power in a way that allows it to store and use greatly more knowledge than would otherwise be possible. To grab this point completely, we must consider the contrasting case of a non-division-of-labor society, for example exists in most of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. In those areas, where the overw helming majority of people live as almost self-sufficient farmers, each family knows fundamentally what all the others know about production. To verify this fact, one might imagine an effort to compile all the knowledge entering into production in such places. One might imagine a corps of interviewers who get a grant from the U.S. government to go out and write down all that the rural farm families of these areas know regarding production. After interviewing the first such family in each area, very little further information would be gained from interviewing the hundreds of millions of other such families. What this means, essentially is that the sum total of the knowledge used in production in a non-division-of-labor society is restricted to what the brain of just one or two individuals can hold. Any one farmer, or farmer plus his wife, in those areas holds virtually all of the knowledge that is used in production in the entire society. Â  (Bourne, pp 209-215)To put it gently, suc h circumstances is a case of wasteful duplication. It is the wasteful duplication of the mental contents of the human brainthe wasteful use of mans capability to store and use knowledge. In this respect and in this sense, a division-of-labor society is indispensable to the proficient use of the human mind in production. To the degree that production is divided into separate specializations, with separate bodies of knowledge, the same total of human brain power is enabled to store and use more knowledge, to the benefit of each and every individual member of that society. This is the meaning of the proposition that the division of labor symbolizes the multiplication of the knowledge used in production. It multiplies such knowledge to the extent that specializations and specialized bodies of knowledge exist. Also it multiplies likewise the benefits that man is capable to derive from the use of his mind.The enlarged body of knowledge that a division-of labor society makes probable is th e precondition for producing products and adopting methods of production that need more knowledge than any one person, family, village, or tribe can own. (Chandra, 166-168).A division-of-labor society is obviously indispensable for the production of all the wonderful products introduced over the last two centuries, from steam engines to rocketships. By the same token, it is equally indispensable for the ability to use modern, efficient methods of production in making goods that can be produced in modest quantities with little or no division of laborfor example, being able to use tractors and chemical fertilizers to help produce wheat.Closely related to the multiplication of the knowledge used in production is the fact that the division of labor makes possible a radical and progressive increase in the benefit derived from the existence of geniuses. In the absence of a division-of-labor society, geniuses, along with everyone else, must pass their lives in producing their own food, clo thing, and shelterassuming they are fortunate enough to have survived in the first place. Perhaps their high intelligence enables them to produce these goods somewhat more efficiently than do other people. But their real potential is obviously lostboth to themselves and to the rest of society.In contrast, in a division-of-labor society geniuses are able to devote their time to science, invention, and the organization and direction of the productive activity of others. Instead of being lost in obscurity, they become the Newtons, the Edisons, and the Fords of the world, thereby incalculably raising the productivity of every member of the division-of-labor society.The effect of a division-of-labor society is thus not only to increase the total of the knowledge that the same amount of human brain power can store and use, but also to bring that knowledge up to a standard set by the most intelligent members of the society. The average and belowaverage member of a division-of-labor society is enabled to produce on the strength of the intelligence of the most intelligent. Thus, in a division-of-labor society, people even of minimal intelligence are enabled to produce and obtain such goods as automobiles and television sets-goods which on their own they would not even have been able to imagine.And in each succeeding generation, geniuses are able to begin with the knowledge acquired by all the preceding generations, and then make their own, fresh contributions to knowledge. In this way, the knowledge and productive power of a division-of-labor society are able progressively to increase, reaching greater and greater heights as time goes on.In a division-of-labor society, not only productive geniuses, but everyone is enabled to concentrate on the kind of work for which he is best suited by virtue of his intellectual and bodily endowment. This principle applies to artistic and musical geniuses, to individuals with the kind of rare talents required to perform surgical opera tions or to be a champion athlete, on down to people whose special advantage may consist merely of such attributes as the possession of relatively keen eyesight or relatively great physical strength.As with productive geniuses, those with the potential ability to be great artists or musicians, great surgeons or athletes, or outstanding creators or performers of any kind, would not be able to realize their potential in the absence of a division-of-labor society. Because even if they managed to be born and reach adulthood, their time would be taken up with growing their own food and making their own clothing and shelter. In a division-of labor society, on the other hand, such individuals can realize their potential. And all the rest of mankind gains from itfrom being able to enjoy the art and music they create, from being able to live because of the surgical operations they perform, and from being able to have the pleasure of observing the feats they accomplish. (Perelman, pp 77-82)In a division-of-labor society, every productive advantage that individuals possess is likely to be put to use and to increase the productivity of labor. In a society of millions, hundreds of millions, or however many people, every person tends to focus on the specific things for which he is rationally and physically best suited. And therefore the production of everything tends to be carried on in the most proficient way it can be carried on in the circumstances. The production of everything tends to be carried on by those who can do it relatively best.All of the preceding discussion of the division of labor can be summarized by saying that the division of labor increases the efficiency with which man is able to apply his mind, his body, and his nature-given environment to production. It expands his capacity to store and use knowledge, which knowledge it raises to a standard set by the most intelligent members of society. This standard in turn tends to rise higher and higher in each s ucceeding generation, as creative geniuses again and again enlarge the stock of technological knowledge. The division of labor also increases the degree to which knowledge of production is assimilated, the yield to the time spent in acquiring it, and the efficiency with which it is disseminated. It increases the efficiency with which man applies his body to production inasmuch as it enables everyone to concentrate on whatever he is relatively best suited for by virtue of his bodily endowment. It also eliminates unnecessary motion in production. (Dumville, Torano, pp 166-175)On the basis of all of the foregoing considerations, it should be obvious that from the perspective of the production of wealth and all that depends on the production of wealth, a division-of-labor society is the form of society that is appropriate to mans nature. While man always possesses the faculty of reason, a division-of labor society is necessary if he is to use his rationality efficiently in production. I t is necessary if he is to actualize the productive potential provided by his possession of reason.It should be equally obvious that the existence of a division-of-labor society is to the material self-interest of every individual. Whoever, in the words of von Mises, prefers wealth to poverty and life and health to sickness and death, is logically obliged to value the existence of a division-of-labor society and all that it depends on. For it is the essential foundation of all significant wealth and of the vital contribution made by wealth to mans life and health. Take away a division-of-labor society, and production shrivels to the level of medieval feudalism, with its consequently recurring famines and plagues and resulting average life expectancy of twenty-five years-years, it should never be forgotten, whose passage was marked with cold, hunger, exhaustion, and pain. Apart from the amelioration provided by Western aid in the form of food and medicines, such continues to be the m iserable condition of human life today in all that vast part of the world that is not integrated into the division of labor.Thus, the widely held notion that life in society requires the sacrifice of the individuals self-interest is totally mistaken in regard to a division-of-labor society. That notion applies only to societies characterized by force and plunder, not to a division-of-labor society. A division-of-labor society represents the mutual cooperation of individuals for the purpose of achieving their own individual ends. The radical and progressive increase in the productivity of labor it brings about makes it possible for everyone to achieve his ends incalculably better within its framework than outside of it. (Gereffi, Korzeniewicz, pp 30-48).

Definition of Idiographic and Nomothetic

Definition of Idiographic and Nomothetic Idiographic and nomothetic methods represent two different approaches to understanding social life. An idiographic method focuses on individual cases or events. Ethnographers, for example, observe the minute details of everyday life to construct an overall portrait of a specific group of people or community. A nomothetic method, on the other hand, seeks to produce general statements that account for larger social patterns, which form the context of single events, individual behaviors, and experience. Sociologists who practice nomothetic research are likely to work with large survey data sets or other forms of statistical data, and to conduct quantitative statistical analysis as their method of study. Key Takeaways: Idiographic and Nomothetic Research The nomothetic approach involves trying to make generalizations about the world and understand large-scale social patterns.The idiographic approach involves trying to uncover a great deal of detailed information about a narrower subject of study.Sociologists can combine both idiographic and nomothetic approaches in order to develop a more comprehensive understanding of society. Historical Background Nineteenth century German philosopher Wilhelm Windelband, a neo-Kantian, introduced these terms and defined their distinctions.  Windelband used nomothetic to describe an approach to producing knowledge that seeks to make large-scale generalizations. This approach is common in the natural sciences, and is considered by many to be the true paradigm and goal of the scientific approach. With a nomothetic approach, one conducts careful and systemic observation and experimentation in order to derive results that can be applied more broadly outside the realm of study. We might think of them as scientific laws, or general truths that have come from social science research. In fact, we can see this approach present in the work of early German sociologist Max Weber, who wrote about the processes of creating ideal types and concepts meant to serve as general rules. On the other hand, an idiographic approach is one that is specifically focused on a particular case, place, or phenomenon. This approach is designed to derive meanings particular to the research target, and it is not necessarily designed for extrapolating generalizations. Application in Sociology Sociology is a discipline that bridges and combines these two approaches, which is akin to  the disciplines important micro/macro distinction. Sociologists study the relationships between people and society, both at the micro and macro level. People and their everyday interactions and experiences make up the micro. The macro consists of the larger patterns, trends, and social structures that make up society. In this sense, the idiographic approach often focuses on the micro, while the nomothetic approach is used to understand the macro. Methodologically speaking, this means that these two different approaches to conducting social science research also often fall along the qualitative/quantitative divide. One would typically use qualitative methods like ethnographic research, participant observation, interviews, and focus groups to conduct idiographic research. Quantitative methods such as large-scale surveys and statistical analysis of demographic or historical data would be used to conduct nomothetic research. However, many sociologists believe that the best research will combine both nomothetic and idiographic approaches, as well as both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Doing so is effective because it allows for a deep understanding of how large-scale social forces, trends, and problems influence the everyday lives of individual people. For example, if one wanted to develop a robust understanding of the many and varied effects of racism  on Black people, one would be wise to take a nomothetic approach to studying the prevalence of police killings and the health impacts of structural inequalities, among other things that can be quantified and measured in large number. But one would also be wise to conduct ethnography and interviews to understand the experiential realities and effects of living in a racist society, from the standpoint of those who experience it. Similarly, if one were conducting a sociological study of gender bias, one could combine both nomothetic and idiographic approaches. A nomothetic approach could include gathering statistics, such as the number of women in political office or data on the gender pay gap. However, researchers would be wise to also talk to women (for example, through interviews or focus groups) about their own experiences with sexism and discrimination. In other words, by combining statistics with information about the lived experiences of individuals, sociologists can develop a more comprehensive understanding of topics such as racism and sexism. Updated  by Nicki Lisa Cole, Ph.D.

Alcohol Anonomyous (St James Club) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Alcohol Anonomyous (St James Club) - Essay Example In these regards, confidentiality was observed. When the meeting opened the group leader and members had about four different sayings in the group session. There was a facilitator that guided the group from beginning to end. At the beginning the facilitator opened the floor for anyone to answer questions and to elucidate the general rules. Some of the rules were related to confidentiality and the others centered on how the group should respect each other. The group leader then opened the discussion to the other members and asked if anyone was having problems staying sober. One of the group members named Charles appeared to be the dominant group member but he also helped start the session. Each person had a supporter and Charles was having a problem with his supporter. The group dynamic was slightly off, as there were twenty men and only three women. Still, I believe in terms of numbers the size of the group was optimal for discussion. The group also had a strong diversity of age, wit h individuals there from age 18 to age 72. In all I can say this was a spiritually based meeting that was beneficial to the group members. Sitting in on this meeting I felt accepted and socially at ease; I appreciate the experience and have no difficulty understanding how this could help individuals in their troubles with alcohol.

German and French Fascism between 1870 and 1939 Essay

German and French Fascism between 1870 and 1939 - Essay Example German and French Fascism between 1870 and 1939 Social unrest between the opposed classes increase and terminates a social revolution. Marx despised ethical dissertation and constantly opposed moralistic involvements in the political and social issues. Marxism proclaimed that Communists did not preach morality at all. Marx did not show any interest in discussions on how people ought to act in a morally defensible way. He argued that capitalism had destroyed morality and turned it into a real lie. Attempts to develop socialistic ideas on moral precepts were considered as being distractions from the significance of confronting the fundamental causes of social misery in the course of material production. Marx opposed the commodification of labor and held that it rendered the worker economical and political powerless. Marxism on the other hand is based on a philosophical viewpoint called dialectical materialism. This precept holds that the history of humans is the story of class warfare. The society in this case is seen to struggle through different development stages. At each stage of development, the proletariat gains some more freedom that brings them closer to their goal of proletarian revolution. According to the maxims, there is no principle that supports the history of the materialistic, there is no God.The believe that religion is false is hereby considered to be a bourgeoisie tool which attempts to prevent the communist revolution. In the German revolution, the ruling class opposed the precepts of maxims. The struggle of the people to move to a state of freedom is considered to have been a real struggle. However, Marx still pushed on with his ideologies for the establishment of a revolutionized community. Trotsky who addressed the Germany communist Party to stop Fascism seconds the analys is. His aim was that they break not the Comintern itself but the Comintern policy5. Germany revolution ends, due in large part to some democratic parties6. Some of the parties during this revolution belonged to the old second international. Prior to the war, the social democratic party had never held power but only remained in the opposition and therefore supported the war. The statement executes Karl Rosa Luxemburg. In January 1923, the French administrations send troops to occupy the Ruhr. Unrests soar while the working class takeoffs massive strikes and wiping out the savings of the middle class. Some parties labeled themselves ‘Marxist’ while forty-five percent of the total voters supported them. Some ultra-rights movements grew and emphasized on the Marxism ideology of unity of the international working class. Hitler was very hostile to this ideology of Marxism due to its emphasis on the unity of the global working class instead of on racial solidarity7. The plan t o defend Belgium was aimed at making a stand at a line of forts between the league and the Antwerp cities. The British armies found them under attack on May 13 since they had been unaware that the Germany paratrooper units had already captured their forts. The offensive of Germany to the south unexpectedly emerged from Ardennes forests at the second time. During the following few days, the main allied armies were trapped between the German forces and were therefore unable to protect either Paris or stop the Germans from entering to the English channel8. The German troops to the south went on between the

Data protection in online banking

Data protection in online banking Introduction Online banking is the practice of performing bank transactions over the internet. Due to the advanced nature of technology, most people use the internet to fulfil most of their personal needs, for instance; e-mails, internet calls, and video conferencing. Information technology is now being used to develop more supple and easy to use banking services (Nadim and Noorjahan, 2007). Online banking which can also be called internet banking is now being used and adopted by most people. Online banking can be useful in so many ways to both the customer and the banking institution, although the degree of its usefulness varies depending on whose point of view you look at it from. Online banking activities involves not only banks and customers but includes third parties too (Guptar, 2006). This essay would be looking at the privacy issues relating to the use of customers data and transactions in online banking. This essay would also be looking at the privacy concerns about how the customers per sonal data is used by the bank and what amount of control a customer has over the use of his/her data, how the bank shares customers personal data with third party or affiliated businesses and the rights and control customers have over the distribution of their data. And also what rights the government have over the monitoring of customers bank details and information, the ethical, social, professional and legal issues related to online banking services and the application of ethical/professional principles in the use of online banking services. Privacy issues in Online Banking Internationally, customers of several organisations can now pay their bills, transfer money to multiple accounts, make deposits, withdrawals or payments with online checks, view transactions on their account, trade bonds and securities, and all this can be done conveniently with just the click of the mouse and in the comfort of the customers home. The physical presence of customers are no longer needed for most transactions in the bank, as long queues witnessed in crowded banking halls can now be avoided which saves the bank the overhead cost of managing a crowded bank hall. But still, so many customers are concerned about the security of their personal information while operating the online banking service. According to Duquenoy et al (2005, p. 1), privacy is one of the main concerns associated with the use of online banking. I believe privacy is the most fundamental and relevant issue in online banking. Although there is not a specific privacy law in respect to online banking, ther e is an abundance of privacy laws that exist and this essay would be looking at a few of them as they are too many to write on all of them here. As noted by a few authors, Nadim and Noorjahan (2007) believed that privacy is one of the key factors amongst other issues which have an effect on a customers adoption of online banking technology. Most customers are concerned about how their personal data would be used when registering for an online banking account. What happens to their data after giving out their personal information? They are not sure and convinced about how secure and safe their data would be and how the data would be stored, manipulated, retrieved and updated. Mason (1986) stated that privacy concerns in online banking where raised by a few questions like; what information do customers require to reveal about themselves?; on what conditions?; what information can the customer can keep to themselves? According to Earp and Payton (2006) some major privacy concerns about the use of online banking technology are collection (enormous amount of personal information data collected and stored in databases), unauthorize d secondary use of data (personal data used for purposes other than they were primarily collected for), improper access (personal information viewed by unauthorized personnel), errors (unintended or intentional), and what level of protection could be put in place against them in personal information data. For example, there was a breach of information in which there was an identity theft of 3.3 million people with student loans in the weekend of March 20 21, 2010. Information such as name, addresses and social security numbers were stolen from a portable media device from the headquarters of Educational Credit Management Corporation, although the company claims it was a simple old-fashioned theft and not a hacker incident (WSJ, 2010). Howcroft et al (2003) noted that customers have confidence in their banks but their trust in the technology infrastructure of online banking was frail. Therefore privacy issues have proved to be an obstacle to the adoption of online banking technology (Nadim and Noorjahan, 2007). Most customers are worried about their personal data and financial information being revealed online. According to a study by Paul (2005), 94% of the banks customers express their concern about their personal information being exposed online. Privacy in online banking can be said to be the protection of the customers personal and financial information. It is the duty of IT professionals to secure and protect all customers personal information, they should conform to privacy legislation, professional codes of conduct and ethical principles to gain customers confidence in the technology and guard their reputation. Although Dewan and Seidmann (2001) argue that the success of online banking is expected to come w ith a growing price to personal privacy. They also stated that All online interactions leave detailed audit trails that continually depict a larger portion of our lives. Furthermore, privacy standards associated with the use of online banking technology in the banking industry (industry principles) currently exist. For example the American Bankers Association, Bankers Roundtable, Consumers Bank Association to name a few, have all approved equally to a set of privacy principles to portray a wide and united industry. They all have obligations to the similar set of guiding principles like; recognizing an individuals expectation of privacy; using, collecting and retaining personal information only if it produces the greatest benefit to such person; maintaining an up-to-date and accurate information; making individuals aware of the privacy policies; confine exposure of customers personal information; established security measures to protect information and maintaining an individuals privacy in business relationships with third parties (Earp and Payton, 2006). How can personal data be protected? Technological solutions that can give customers direct control over their personal information on their computer like cookie manager, encryption software, ad blocker to mention a few, give customers an amount of control over intrusions by hackers, spam and cookies. Also customer activism creating a policy taking direct action in online or offline environments to achieve desired enhancements in privacy policy, for example the American civil liberties Unions Take Back Your Data Campaign (Ashworth Free, 2006). Also privacy codes of practice like the BCS and ACM guide professionals on how to create and implement systems that protects the privacy of third parties. Privacy laws have been mostly controversial when viewing the laws relating to how much control customers have in the sharing of their personal information with third party organisations or affiliated business. Personal information in the control of banks about their customers data and transactions passes through different hands numerous times (Gupta, 2006).It is almost not possible for banks to retain customer data within their computer network let alone their jurisdiction. The risks of tampering of information, blockage and leakage are high and therefore needs an adequate legal and technical protection (Gupta, 2006). Most banks tend to use the personal data of their customers while advertising some of their other products and services. Third parties could use this data for marketing purposes, advertisements and customers usually view this as spam or unwanted information or some could also use it for illegitimate reasons like identity theft. The sale and distribution of customer pers onal data to third parties is a very lucrative business and generates a lot of revenue for companies. Duquenoy (2005) found out that the industry was valued at two billion pounds as at 2003. But how ethical is the sale or distribution of customer data to third parties? How does the third party make use of this information? These are some of the questions most banks have failed to look into in the use of personal data to make other products in online banking. Most customers find it a bit complicated controlling their personal information given out and collected by the bank, and its other businesses or government agencies that they could be shared with or sold to. It is required by the law that customers have to be given an option in order to decide what personal data can be collected and given out to third party or affiliated businesses, such options include the opt-in and opt-out methods. The UK follows the opt-in scheme under the provisions of the privacy and Electronics Communications Regulations 2003. The provision of an opt-out method gives the customer the choice of preventing personal information being disclosed to affiliated or non-affiliated businesses and third parties, while providing an opt-in option is the reverse which allows for the sharing of information for purposes specified by the bank (Giglio, 2005). Further, research discovered that customers must clearly inform companies of their wishes to opt-in or opt-out when registering or filling out online forms for the use of online banking or other internet services provided by the bank. In that case customers are to be told what, which and how their data can or may be used, they should also be given an explanation or description about what circumstances or situations by which personal information may be disclosed to third parties. The principles of rights based ethics (contractrianism) states that the cus tomer also has the right to know, the right to privacy and the right to property. Although, some customers might not mind having their personal data being shared, others might mind and tend to mind a lot. A major challenge being faced in the IT industry today is ensuring that sharing of data is secure and safe guarded (Raab, 2008). An IT professional should ensure that customer personal data is protected and is only shared with trustworthy third parties. And it is also the responsibility of the IT professional to ensure that personal data is used only for its primary or intended purpose or that which has been specified by the customer. One of the ethical principles in the BCS (British Computer Society) code of conduct states that You shall have regard to the legitimate right of third parties Third parties being referred to here could be viewed as the customer, and it is expected of an IT professional to know, understand and abide by the law and are also expected to regard and respect the rights of individuals, third parties and the society at large (Duquenoy et al 2005, p. 2). There have been a lot of cases whereby personal data is used for purposes other than which they have been collected for and this is ethically wrong. It is also called the secondary use of personal information which is the use of such information other than the purpose it was supplied for (Duquenoy et al 2005, p. 5). According to a research conducted through the distribution of questioners to a few people who make the use of online banking services with their banks in the UAE, 75% of customers get unsolicited mails about the banks new products and offers which they never requested for or signed up for, 8% view this as an intrusion of their privacy and specify not to be mailed about such future produ cts. The remaining 17% seem not to have been educated and informed properly about how to opt-out from the use of their personal data for distribution and marketing purposes or opt-in if they require being aware of promotions and offers the bank makes. It is essential for the bank to foster trust between itself and the customer as this is good for business and it is a known fact that it is harder to regain trust than initially gaining it. This is why it is essential that much more effort be put in place to secure customer data sharing (Raab, 2008). While conducting an interview with Suhail bin Taraff, an IT staff of Emirates NBD which is the largest bank in the UAE, it was noted that the customers that make use of the internet banking services of the bank would require to opt-in by ticking a check box in their personal online banking account if they require to be notified of products the bank offers and if they would also require their personal data passed on to third parties and affiliates of the bank producing similar or specific products or services.Online banking has two types of risk: maintaining integrity of customer information and preventing unauthorised use of such data (Gupta, 2006). The indiscriminate use of personal data is viewed as a violation of an individuals privacy right and in the UK the right to privacy is covered by the Data Protection Act. The second principle of the Data Protection Act 1998 states that the customer has the right of information about the processing of their personal data, including the rig ht to be informed either at the time the data is first processed or when that data is first disclosed to a third party, and also the right of access to their personal data (Duquenoy et al 2005, p. 20). Although the law cannot keep pace with technology, under the Data Protection Act a person has to demonstrate if they have been subjected to unwarranted distress/damages through their datas exposure in order to claim any sort of compensation (Raab, 2008). Does the government have the right to monitor online banking transactions? Businesses view the use of information as a means to making more money while the government tend to view information as a means to protect security. However, in both cases individuals or groups have limited control on how their personal data is used. It is found to be known that knowledge is power and the more information the government gathers about customers bank transactions the more power they have over them and the less power the customers have. And there could be abuse of such power by the government or whoever is in charge to use such power, for selfish means or politically motivated aims. The government claims that they use the capabilities offered by IT to get the intelligence that enables them to meet their responsibilities to protect citizens. But most individuals have little confidence in the governments handling of their data and fear that there could be a misuse or misinterpretation which could lead to persecution and prosecution of innocent people in the application of law and order and also while protecting national security. There is also found to be a lack of confidence in the governments ability to protect personal data and keep it secure, most online banking customers fear that this could give the government too much power and control over them. Most customers tend to mind if the government or law enforcement agencies read their communications or view their bank transactions, even if they have not done anything wrong or have nothing to hide. Part two of article eight of the Human Rights Act, 1998 states thus: There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interest of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedom of others (Duquenoy et al 2005, pg. 11). In the United States of America, the government created a secret programme to monitor bank transactions of suspected terrorists or people having ties with them that routes through the Belgian based financial company SWIFT (Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication), since the terrorist attack that occurred on the 11th of September 2001. The proprietary electronic network, SWIFT, then gives the US government access to financial data from institutions worldwide (Jacobs, 2007). Banks tend to view privacy matters almost completely in conditions of regulatory conformity. But the same government that claims to protect the rights and freedom of individuals seem to invade it also. The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 and the USA Patriot Act 2001 are legislations that tend to serve the interest of the state related to issues of counter terrorism and crime detection and support the monitoring and surveillance of individuals. Professor Charles Raab (2008) said that there is a need to question the sharing of personal data to cater the needs of society other than the protection of privacy. Some may argue that the monitoring of an individuals bank account transactions without their consent violates the rights of confidentiality and anonymity of such customer. Any country that signs up to the UN Declaration of Human Rights must make sure they take steps to protect privacy. In Europe the EU includes privacy in its convention on Human Rights while the UK includes it in the Data Protection Act. In the UK the monitoring of a customers bank transactions and data can be viewed as an invasion of the customers privacy by the government and violates the privacy rights of the customer and goes against the data protection act which states that personal data can only be processed when consent has been given or necessary to contract and must be only for specified purposes, adequate, relevant and not excessive, not kept longer than necessary and processed in ac cordance with rights of data subject (ICO, 2010). According to a research conducted by the BCS, 61% of members believe that there is an inequality between the data rights of the individual and the state while only 17% believe that the present legal regulations on data are sufficient (BCS, 2010). The secure handling of a customers personal information is a legal, ethical and social requirement in online banking (Duquenoy et al, 2005). The potential for abuse is great in online banking therefore ethics plays a vital role. Ethical issues that arise in online banking gives a cause for concern, for example more than 24,000 HSBC customers were affected by a breach in the storage of their personal information in the banks data centre on the 15th of March 2010, this was as a result of data theft by one of the IT employee (BCS, 2010). This shows a disregard of the ethical principle which implies respect for other people. Unauthorised use of an individuals personal computer without their permission or knowledge could be termed as an invasion of that individuals privacy. Unauthorised access of personal information or poor security measures in Information Systems put customers (society) at risk and this could result in a loss of confidence by the general public and could have a negative effect on the use of online banking services. It is also viewed as a social issue due to the effect it has on the general public and prospective customers. This could lead to hacking or installation of spyware in the individuals computer and puts the owners personal data at risk. There are many legal issues that affect online banking like identity theft, protecting privacy, online crime and misuse of data. Using the internet has its own risk and most customers expect laws to be in place that will protect them while banking online. In the banking industry, the Gramm-Leach-Biley Act of 1999 (GLBA) was passed to augment the protection of privacy while the Data Protection Act (1998) covers the right to privacy in the UK. The law is in place to protect digitally stored personal information from being widely distributed and mismanaged. Organisations are required by the act to make sure that personal information is kept secure. Professional issues could imply how a professional should act and also their role in the design, implementation of data systems and in the manipulation, modification of data and the important role they play. The BCS is the professional body for those employed in the IT industry in the UK. One of the aims of the BCS is to maintain standards in the industry and in most cases these are translated into principles set out in a code of conduct (Duquenoy et al 2005, p. 5). IT professionals are expected to know the law and abide by it. They are also expected to ensure public safety and respect the rights of third parties like the general public. Conclusion Online banking technology seems to be slowly adopted by majority of prospective customers despite being aware about the usefulness of this technology and this is due to the fact that customers are seriously concerned about the privacy of their data and do not really feel secure giving out their personal data digitally. A number of privacy issues have been analysed and discussed in this essay and the rights and control customers have of the use of their personal data, the measures and steps they can use to protect their personal information and the degree to which government agencies have access to the customers bank transactions and personal data. The professional, legal, ethical and social requirement in online banking technology and how an IT professional should apply ethical principles in the use and handling of a customers personal data. Reference List Ashworth, L. Free, C. (2006), Marketing Dataveillance and Digital Privacy: Using Theories of Justice to Understand Consumers Online Privacy Concerns, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 67, pp. 107-123. Duquenoy, P, Jones, S, Rahanu, H, Diaper, D, (2005) Social, Legal and Professional Issues of Computing. Middlesex University Press 2005 Stamatellos, G. (2007), Computer Ethics: A Global Perspective, Jones and Bartlett Publishers Mason, R, 0, (1986) Four Ethical Issues of the Information Age, Issues and opinions, MIS quarterly Earp, J. B. Payton, F. C. (2006), Information Privacy in the Service Sector: An Exploratory Study of Health Care and Banking Professionals, Journal of organizational computing and electronic commerce, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 105 122. Giglio, V. (2005), Privacy in the world of cyberbanking: Emerging legal issues and How You Are Protected. Ng, P. (2010), What is online banking? viewed 20 February 2010, http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-online-banking.htm Roundtree, D. (2001), Taking Care of Customer Privacy, Bank Technology News, Vol.14 Issue 11, p.20. European Parliament Blocks US powers to monitor EU bank transactions, viewed 21 February 2010, http://www.out-law.com/page-10748 Nadim, J and Noorjahan, B. (2007), Effect of Perceived Usefulness, Ease of Use, Security and Privacy on Customer Attitude and Adaptation in the Context of E-Banking, Journal of Management Research, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 147 157 Howcroft, B, Hamilton, R. and Hewer, P. (2002), Consumer Attitude and the Usage and Adoption of Home-based Banking in the United Kingdom, The International Journal of Bank Marketing, 20(3): 111-121. Jamieson, P (2005), Consumers and Online Banking, Point for Credit Union Research Advice Dewan, R and Seidmann, A. (2001), Current Issues in E-BANKING, Communications of the ACM; Vol.44 Issue 6, p. 31-32 Raab, C. (2008), The privacy conundrum, viewed 13 March 2010, http://www.bcs.org/server.php?show=conWebDoc.17577 The office of the Information Commisioner, viewed 13 March 2010, http://www.ico.gov.uk British Computer Society (2010). Code of Conduct, viewed 10 March 2010, http://www.bcs.org/server.php?show=nav.6030 Gupta, A, (2006), Data Protection in Consumer E-banking, Journal of Internet Banking and Commerce, vol. 11, no. 1 State has more data on citizens than necessary, say BCS members, viewed 26th March 2010, http://www.bcs.org/server.php?show=conWebDoc.34817 Jacobs, E, (2007), SWIFT Privacy: Data Processor Becomes Data Controller, Journal of Internet Banking and Commerce, vol. 12, no. 1 The basics, in Information Commisioners office, viewed 9th March 2010, http://www.ico.gov.uk/what we cover/freedom of information/the basics.aspx Freedom of Information Act (2000), viewed 15th March 2010, http://www.opsi.gov.uk/Acts/acts2000/ukpga 20000036 en 1 Pilon, M, (2010), Data Theft Hits 3.3 Million Borrowers, The Wall Street Journal, viewed 29th March 2010, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304434404575150024174102954.html?KEYWORDS=data+theft+hits+33+million+borrowers

Extraterrestrial Visitation - The Truth is Out There :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Extraterrestrial Visitation - The Truth is Out There Look up in the sky! It's a bird! It's a plane! No, it's...a UFO?! For many years, the question of extraterrestrial visitation is one that has puzzled everyone from the media crazed public to the most ingenious scientists. An excerpt from the 1996 summer's sci-fi thriller, Independence Day , reflects how some of the public feel about the validity behind extraterrestrial visitation: PRESIDENT. Sir, regardless of what you might have read in the tabloids there have never been any spacecrafts recovered by your government. Take my word for it. There is no Area 51. There is no recovered spaceship. AIDE. Uhh... Mr. President... That's not entirely correct... Maybe aliens have visited us in the past. But if so, it has only been on the big screen. Though many avow that they have come in contact with alien visitors, these sightings have been like a cocktail; a mixture of hoaxes, hallucinations, misinterpretations of natural phenomenon, and paranoid imagination. In fact, the probability of intelligent life outside of our planet is almost nil. Reports of extraterrestrial visitation have never been scientifically confirmed. Because the alien topic has been exploited for all it's worth by the market, the argument for the existence of extraterrestrial visitation seems watered down. But still, many people have seriously defended the existence of UFOs through the decades. Some claim they have caught a glimpse of them. Others say the government is covering up information about aliens they have discovered. Still others go as far as to say they were abducted. However, one thing is a non-variable: the firmness of their belief. Many are enthusiastic, almost obsessed, about their interest. Some wander about in search of UFOs, while others lead normal lives. They say that they know what they saw. The pro-UFO argument has always been one that was suspicious and inconsistent. In spite of this disorganization, the theory, like even the most separated arguments, has common threads that links everything together. The first thread is that, intelligent extraterrestrial life exists and their technology is far more advanced than our own. The second thread is that the government has supposedly found alien spacecrafts and alien bodies, and they are covering up the story by keeping critical information from us. Believers seem to think the rest of the world is hostile to this idea because others are not open-minded enough to see the truth.

All The s Men: Theme

The nature of Jack Burden`s journey from the `arid land of facts` to the `dream sea of ideas` is what the story is all about. It goes on to spell whether the journey undertaken by the hero is indeed a spiritual one or an attempt at self-discovery. An attempt has been made to explore the roots of this journey through Modernism (the breakdown of philosophical/moral consensus about the nature of things, the turn toward myth) and Neo-Romanticism (the search for a new unifying principle amid the fragmentations of Modernity/Scientific Materialism), the role of Willie Stark, Ellis Burden, Judge Irwin, and the hero’s journey through the turmoil and pleasures of life. The story revolves around the relationship between the themes of Death and Rebirth which occur in Jack’s journey through incidences of tragedy and beyond. It ends on a note of positivism, when the hero, Jack Burden, transforms himself from being a pawn to his roots in ancestral lineage. Literature Review ‘All the King's Men’, is the story of the rise and fall of Willie Stark, a political titan in the Deep South, who during the 1930s rose from hardscrabble poverty to become the governor of his state, and ultimately it’s most powerful political figure. The story goes on to say how Willie, the anti-hero blackmails and bullies his enemies into submission, and using his good office institutes a radical series of liberal reforms which are designed to tax the rich and ease the burden of the state's poor farmers. This leads to a conflict of personalities which includes the notable former governor, Sam MacMurfee, and other power mongers. Jack Burden, the scion of one of the state's aristocratic dynasties, turns his back on his genteel upbringing, against the wishes of his well-wishers, which includes the influential Judge Irwin. Throwing caution to wind, Jack joins Willie on his journey to stardom, earning him the name as, Willie’s right hand. Willie takes advantage of Jack’s talent as a historical researcher to dig up the unpleasant secrets of his enemies, using this to blackmail and provocation. Cynical and lacking in ambition as he is, Jack walks away from many of his past interests; the dissertation of American History, and marriage to Anne Stanton, the daughter of a former governor of the state. The scene when Willie asks Jack to look for skeletons in the closet of Judge Irwin, Jack is forced to confront his ideas concerning consequence, responsibility, and motivation. He discovers that Judge Irwin had accepted a bribe, and that Governor Stanton, his would-be father-in-law, had covered it up, resulting in Judge Irwin's suicide. The story then turns to another interesting episode of Adam Stanton, Anne’s brother, taking up the directorship of a new hospital being built by Willie. The vicious turn of events leads Willie to Anne, who unsuspectingly has an affair leading to his ultimate murder. Jack, with nothing to gain returns, an empty man. In this we see, the death and rebirth of Jack through his tryst with destiny and forlorn countenance of Anne transform to one of exuberance. Willie's death at the hands of Adam, his loyal employee, jolts Jack to such an extent that he is left dumbfounded and brooding of the consequence of his future and a rethink of his belief. Jack returns to his senses and takes a major plunge towards society by accepting his long lost love, Anne Stanton, and pursues his passion of research . 3. 0 Analysis Jack’s journey from the ‘arid land of facts’ to the ‘dream sea of ideas’ can be best described as a journey towards truth which is emphasized when he says, ‘And all times are one time, and all those dead in the past never lived before our definition gives them life, and out of the shadow their eyes implore us. That is what all of us historical researchers believe. And we love truth. ’ It may be seen that the principal characters in the novel Willie Stark, Judge Irwin, Anne Stanton though their personal lives have not been free from blemishes, they were in more than a way, corrupt. Starting with his association with Willie to the displeasure of his near and dear, the moment he learns of the affair of his first love Anne Stanton with Willie, and to the moment he learns of Judge Irwin’s suicide, Jack had never endured a sign of negativism in Willie’s actions. It is only when Jack’s mother reveals the true identity of his father, does Jack admonishes Willie for his deliberations, although not in public. This incident leads Jack through many a twist and turn in his endeavor to get to the bottom of Willie’s motives. The sequence of events that followed, leading to the untimely murder of Willie, inculcated a sense of disbelief, and revulsion in him. The trudge back to his roots exemplifies the struggle and worship of humanity in all its glory. Jack for all his wiles, was an ardent follower of his master. Willie Stark, ‘the Boss’ gave the impression of a man on the move. Never, did he pause to gauge the consequences of his actions. This ultimately led to his doom. Willie Stark, though he had a humble beginning, rose to a position of wielding unbridled power in the process subjugating his opponents by brute force and of course putting to use the investigative skills of Jack. Judge Irwin, revered as a father figure by Jack, has not been in the good books of Willie, who instigates Jack to dig into the past activities of Irwin, protested vehemently by him. However, when the facts were unearthed, a shocked Jack and a bemused Willie confronted Judge Irwin. Judge Irwin was a man of honor. He was known to be a very straight man and never took the law into his hands. This revelation was too much for him to digest, and equally embarrassing, that he did what a man of his stature would have done, commit suicide. Strangely, for most part of the story, Jack believes that Ellis Burden, whom he refers to as his Scholarly attorney, to be his father, where in fact, it is Judge Irwin who is the real biological father. Ironically, Jack gets to know this only after the suicide of Irwin, which Jack believes was because of his action. Jack’s aristocratic moorings unfortunately does not refrain him from joining hands with the immoral Willie Stark as we see in the story. Though Willie uses Jack as a formidable tool in his ascent to power, using Jack’s research skills to his greatest advantage of subjugating his opponents, was a crime most unsuspecting of such a character. Jack becomes a witness to Willie’s Machiavellian manipulations and misdeeds, albeit, unwittingly. However Jack’s shunning politics at the end of the story and his return to his earlier passion is a metaphor for Jack’s return to his roots, his history, and his American past. In fact, Jack’s research revolves around his study of the life of Cass Mastern, a man of high moral standards and a student at Transylvania College in Kentucky. Even the subject Jack takes up for his dissertation is a reminder to the readers of Jack’s search for the truth. ‘Is death the last sleep? No, it is the last and final awakening,’ said W. Scott, a stark reminder synonymous of the characters in this book; Judge Irwin’s suicide when he is confronted by Jack with facts about his acceptance of a bribe, and the killing of Willie Stark by Adam Stanton. While for the major part of the story Jack believed that the ‘Great Twitch’ denoted actions in life and not words or deeds. The awakening on that morning at home, brought Jack to retract his thoughts on life, and once again believed that men were responsible for their actions and deeds. This rethinking in a sense is responsible for Jack’s decision to marry Anne Stanton (a metaphor for rebirth) despite his knowledge of the fact that he she had an affair with Willie Stark. Reflecting philosophically he says, ‘all the words we speak meant nothing and there was only the pulse in the blood and the twitch of the nerve, like a dead frog's leg in the experiment when the electric current goes through, a true reflection of Modernism. This can be, in a philosophical sense be equated to the death of Jack figuratively, since Anne was Jack’s first love, whom he loved more than anything else in the world. 4. 0 Conclusion In the ultimate analysis it may be inferred that Jack’s life has been a life of journey towards the truth, towards his roots and eventually his self-discovery. The main characters in the story play an important role in molding Jack’s character, the incidents in the lives of those characters enlightening the path Jack has taken to achieve his goal. 5. 0 Bibliography 1. 0 www. sparknotes. com/lit/kingsmen/summary. html